awesome-copilot/skills/legacy-circuit-mockups/references/assembly-language.md

6502 Assembly Language with AT28C256 EEPROM

A practical specification for writing 6502/65C02 assembly language programs intended to be stored in and executed from an AT28C256 (32 KB) parallel EEPROM in single-board computers (SBCs) and retro systems.

---

1. Scope and Assumptions

This document assumes:

• A 6502-family CPU (6502, 65C02, or compatible)
• Program code stored in an AT28C256 (32K x 8) EEPROM
• Memory-mapped I/O (e.g., 6522 VIA)
• Reset and interrupt vectors located in EEPROM
• External RAM mapped elsewhere (e.g., 62256 SRAM)

---

2. AT28C256 EEPROM Overview

Parameter	Value
Capacity	32 KB (32768 bytes)
Address Lines	A0-A14
Data Lines	D0-D7
Access Time	~150 ns
Supply Voltage	5 V
Package	DIP-28 / PLCC

Typical Memory Map Usage

Address Range	Usage
$8000-$FFFF	EEPROM (code + vectors)
$FFFA-$FFFF	Interrupt vectors

---

3. 6502 Memory Map Example

$0000-$00FF  Zero Page (RAM)
$0100-$01FF  Stack
$0200-$7FFF  RAM / I/O
$8000-$FFFF  AT28C256 EEPROM

---

4. Reset and Interrupt Vectors

The 6502 reads vectors from the top of memory:

Vector	Address	Description
NMI	$FFFA-$FFFB	Non-maskable interrupt
RESET	$FFFC-$FFFD	Reset entry point
IRQ/BRK	$FFFE-$FFFF	Maskable interrupt

Vector Definition Example

        .org $FFFA
        .word nmi_handler
        .word reset
        .word irq_handler

---

5. Assembly Program Structure

Typical Layout

        .org $8000

reset:
        sei             ; Disable IRQs
        cld             ; Clear decimal mode
        ldx #$FF
        txs             ; Initialize stack

main:
        jmp main

---

6. Essential 6502 Instructions

Registers

Register	Purpose
A	Accumulator
X, Y	Index registers
SP	Stack pointer
PC	Program counter
P	Processor status

Common Instructions

Instruction	Function
LDA/STA	Load/store accumulator
LDX/LDY	Load index registers
JMP/JSR	Jump / subroutine
RTS	Return from subroutine
BEQ/BNE	Conditional branch
SEI/CLI	Disable/enable IRQ

---

7. Addressing Modes (Common)

Mode	Example	Notes
Immediate	LDA #$01	Constant
Zero Page	LDA $00	Fast
Absolute	LDA $8000	Full address
Indexed	LDA $2000,X	Tables
Indirect	JMP ($FFFC)	Vectors

---

8. Writing Code for EEPROM Execution

Key Considerations

• Code is read-only at runtime
• Self-modifying code not recommended
• Place jump tables and constants in EEPROM
• Use RAM for variables and stack

Zero Page Variable Example

counter = $00

        lda #$00
        sta counter

---

9. Timing and Performance

• EEPROM access time must meet CPU clock requirements
• AT28C256 supports ~1 MHz comfortably
• Faster clocks may require wait states or ROM shadowing

---

10. Example: Simple LED Toggle (Memory-Mapped I/O)

PORTB = $6000
DDRB  = $6002

        .org $8000
reset:
        sei
        ldx #$FF
        txs

        lda #$FF
        sta DDRB

loop:
        lda #$FF
        sta PORTB
        jsr delay
        lda #$00
        sta PORTB
        jsr delay
        jmp loop

---

11. Assembling and Programming Workflow

1. Write source (.asm)
2. Assemble to binary
3. Pad or relocate to $8000
4. Program AT28C256 via T48 / minipro
5. Insert EEPROM and reset CPU

---

12. Assembler Directives (Common)

Directive	Purpose
.org	Set program origin
.byte	Define byte
.word	Define word (little-endian)
.include	Include file
.equ	Constant definition

---

13. Common Mistakes

Issue	Result
Missing vectors	CPU hangs on reset
Wrong .org	Code not executed
Using RAM addresses in ROM	Crash
Stack not initialized	Undefined behavior

---

14. Reference Links

• https://www.masswerk.at/6502/6502_instruction_set.html
• https://www.nesdev.org/wiki/6502
• https://www.westerndesigncenter.com/wdc/documentation
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502

---

Document Scope: 6502 assembly stored in AT28C256 EEPROM Audience: Retrocomputing, SBC designers, embedded hobbyists Status: Stable reference